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THE FOUNDATION RESEARCH DEPARTMENT | |
A Grammar of the Yucatecan Mayan Language DECLARATIVE SENTENCES 125. A declarative sentence is made up of a subject and a predicate, either of which can range from simple to compound in nature. The declarative sentence is built around the verb conjugations described in the chapter on verbs. These conjugations are intransitive, transitive, and passive. As pointed out in the introductory paragraphs on verbs (Section 73), it is important in Mayan to know what sort of action in being talked about before beginning a sentence. This is because unlike English the conjugations for transitive and intransitive verbs are different. Furthermore, as in English there is a separate conjugation for passive verbs. Thus there are three conjugations which have to be taken into account when forming a sentence in Mayan. Since each conjugation has certain peculiarities when forming a sentence, especially as the subject and predicate become more complex, each conjugation will be looked at individually.
126. Before starting on sentences with verbs it should be noted here that, as pointed out in Section 14, Example 1, Note 1, the verb "to be" does not exist in Mayan when the sentence is of the nature of "(subject) is (predicate adjective)." In Mayan the sentence would be "(predicate adjective) (subject)." as long as the predicate adjective is simple in nature. Examples: Malob le hanalo. "That food is good." (Not bad that food.) Hach x-cichpam le x-cħupalo. "That girl is very pretty." (Very pretty that girl.) In Section 52 - 57 there are other examples of these types of sentences.
127. If either the predicate adjective or the subject becomes complex in any way then it is no longer necessarily true that the predicate adjective comes first in the sentence. In Section 53 there is the example: U yatan Don Sil mas hadzutz ti u yatan Don Lau. "The wife of Sil is more beautiful than the wife of Lau." It would also be possible to say: Mas hadzutz u yatan Don Sil ti u yatan Don Lau. In this case there is a choice in the positioning of the predicate adjective, and this is generally true when the predicate adjective is comparative. There are some instances though when the predicate adjective cannot be positioned first in the sentence, and one of those instances is when the predicate adjective is superlative. Examples: Le xibpalo u mas nohochil in palaloob. "That boy is the oldest of my children." Chi Cħeen Itza u mas hadzutzil le x-lac cahobo. "Chi Cħeen Itza is the most beautiful of the ruined towns."
Sentences with Intransitive Verbs 128. The simplest sentence in Mayan is composed of a unmodified intransitive verb tense of any given verb. Such a verb tense expresses in itself a complete idea. (See Section 83 through 90.) Examples: Hanen. "I ate." (Ate I.) Dzoc u meyah. "He/she/it finished working." (Finished he/she/it work.) Tan'c bin. "We are going." (Are we go.) Cu hokol. "He/she/it comes out."
129. The negation of the foregoing sentences is accomplished by placing the negator ma in front of the verb tense. Ma tan'c bin. "We are not going." ("Not are we go.") Ma tu hokol. "He/she/it does not come out." ("Not he comes out." See Section 89 for comment on the change of the pronoun from cu to tu.)
130. The intransitive verb tense can be joined by a subject of varied complexity to define more precisely who or what is responsible for the action. Examples: Toone tan'c bin. "We are going." (We are we go.) Toone, the emphatic "we", is used here to emphasize who is doing the action. Dzoc u meyah le maco. "That man has finished working." (Finished he work that man.) Le maco dzoc u meyah. "That man has finished working." (That man finished he work.) Cu hokol le huho. "That iguana comes out." (It comes out that iguana.) As can be seen in the second and third examples, there are two positions which the subject can take in an intransitive sentence; either before or after the verb tense. The usual order is to have the subject follow the verb, but putting the subject before the verb does not alter the meaning of the sentence. Putting the subject before the verb emphasizes the subject, and that would be the main reason for putting the subject in this position.
131. The negation of the foregoing sentences is accomplished by placing the negator ma directly in front of the verb tense. This is true no matter what position the subject may take. Examples: Toone ma tan'c bin. "We are not going." (We not are we go.) Ma dzoc u meyah le maco. "That man is not finished working." (Not finished he work that man.) Le maco ma dzoc u meyah. "That man is not finished working." (That man not finished he work.)
132. There is in fact an instance when ma is not directly tied to the verb tense, but in this case ma would be translated as "Wasn't it". Example: Ma holac binen Ho? "Wasn't it yesterday that I went to Mérida?" Ma zamac cu hokol le maco? "Wasn't it just a little while ago that that man came out?"
133. For compound and complex subjects the position which they take follows the rule given for the simple subjects; that is, the subject can come either before or after the intransitive verb tense for which it is the subject. Examples: Lio yetel Angel dzoc u meyahoob. "Lio and Angel finished they work." Dzoc u meyahoob Lio yetel Angel. "Finished they work Lio and Angel." Le maco, le minaan u ppoc tio, dzoc u meyah. "That man, that without his hat with him, finished he work." Dzoc u meyah le maco, le minaan u ppoc tio. "Finished he work that man, that without his hat with him." Le huho, le cu cahtal ichil u xan le bukil nao, cu hokol. "The iguana, that which lives in the palm thatch of that roof, comes out." Cu hokol le huho, le cu cahtal ichil u xan le bukil nao. "He comes out that iguana, that which live in the palm thatch of that roof." Notice that in the last two sets of examples the modifying clause le (clause)o is tied to and follows that which the clause modifies, in this case le (subject)o. It is not possible to either separate the modifying clause from the subject or to transpose the position of the modifying clause. For all three of these sets of sentences either word order would be correct, but the preferred word order is given by the second example in each set in which the order is "(verb) (subject and modifiers of subject)."
134. The negation of the above sentences follows the rule shown in Section 131 on simple subjects: the negator goes in front of and is tied to the verb tense. Examples:
Lio yetel Angel ma dzoc u meyahoob.
Le maco, le minaan u ppoc tio, ma dzoc u meyah. Le huho, le cu cahtal ichil u xan le bukil nao, ma tu hokol. Ma tu hokol le huho, le cu cahtal ichil u xan le bukil nao.
135. Just as the subject of an intransitive verb takes its position depending on the emphasis which the speaker wants to place on either the subject or the verb, so too is the position of an adverb or adverbial clause quite flexible, the positioning again relying on the idea the speaker wants to emphasize. Examples: Cu hokol zanzamal. "He comes out daily." Zanzamal cu hokol. "Daily he comes out." Even though a second modifying element is added, the positioning continues to be completely random. Examples: Cu hokol zanzamal hach hadzcabe. Cu hokol hach hadzcabe zanzamal. Hach hadzcabe cu hokol zanzamal. Zanzamal cu hokol hach hadzcabe. Zanzamal hach hadzcabe cu hokol. Hach hadzcabe zanzamal cu hokol. The meaning of the sentences is "Daily he/she/it comes out very early." There are three elements which make up these sentences:
cu hokol he/she/it comes out As can be seen here, all possible permutations are used, and all are perfectly possible, just as they are in English. It is our opinion though that the positioning of the verb element in the middle between the two modifying elements is most preferable, and all things being equal, Zanzamal cu hokol hach hadzcabe. would be the sentence most likely to be used.
136. Now, if a subject, such as le huho (that iguana) is added again all permutations are possible, but in fact some get to be rather awkward. The following sentences are the more probable ones, starting with the most probable: Zanzamal cu hokol le huho hach hadzcabe. Cu hokol le huho zanzamal hach hadzcabe. Le huho cu hokol zanzamal hach hadzcabe. Le huho cu hokol hach hadzcabe zanzamal. Zanzamal hach hadzcabe cu hokol le huho. Hach hadzcabe zanzamal cu hokol le huho.
137. As a sentence gets more complex, the flexibility in positioning clauses gets more limited, mainly because it becomes increasingly unclear what a clause is modifying if it is not positioned near that which it is modifying. For example, if the adjectival clause le cu cahtal ichil u xan le bukil nao (that which lives in the palm thatch of that roof) is added in order to modify le huho to the permutations which generated the above sentences, several of the above examples become no longer viable and a new order of acceptability is created. Zanzamal cu hokol hach hadzcabe le huho, le cu cahtal ichil u xan le bukil nao. Zanzamal cu hokol le huho, le cu cahtal ichil u xan le bukil nao, hach hadzcabe. Le huho, le cu cahtal ichil u xan le bukil nao, cu hokol zanzamal hach hadzcabe. Cu hokol zanzamal le huho, le cu cahtal ichil u xan le bukil nao, hach hadzcabe. Cu hokol zanzamal hach hadzcabe le huho, le cu cahtal ichil u xan le bukil nao. Zanzamal hach hadzcabe cu hokol le huho, le cu cahtal ichil u xan le bukil nao. Hach hadzcabe cu hokol zanzamal le huho, le cu cahtal ichil u xan le bukil nao.
138. Now an adverbial clause, utial u haykintcuba (so that he can sun himself), is added. This new clause is most often tacked on the end of the already available permutations. Le huho, le cu cahtal ichil u xan le bukil nao, cu hokol zanzamal hach hadzcabe utial u haykintcuba. Cu hokol zanzamal le huho, le cu cahtal ichil u xan le bukil nao, hach hadzcabe utial u haykintcuba. Cu hokol zanzamal hach hadzcabe le huho, le cu cahtal ichil u xan le bukil nao, utial u haykintcuba. Cu hokol hach hadzcabe zanzamal le huho, le cu cahtal ichil u xan le bukil nao, utial u haykintcuba. Zanzamal le huho, le cu cahtal ichil u xan le bukil nao, cu hokol hach hadzcabe utial u haykintcuba. Zanzamal hach hadzcabe cu hokol le huho, le cu cahtal ichil u xan le bukil nao, utial u haykintcuba. An example of a sentence using the same elements as above but with a different position for the new clause would be the following. Le huho, le cu cahtal ichil u xan le bukil nao, zanzamal cu hokol utial u haykintcuba hach hadzcabe.
Sentences with Transitive Verbs 139. A declarative sentence built around a transitive verb must have both a subject and an object. In the simplest form both the subject and object are expressed in pronouns. In some instances the object pronoun is not actually expressed but implied, the object already having been mentioned in foregoing conversation. Examples: Dzoc in betic. "I have finished doing it." ("Finished I do it." The "it" is understood and supplied elsewhere in the conversation.) Tan u pulic. "He/she/it is throwing him/her/it/them." (This is a very ambiguous sentence, and can only be cleared up by context. The object is again understood and supplied elsewhere.)
140. The negation is as follows: Examples: Ma dzoc in betic. Ma tan u pulic. (also, Ma tu pulic.)
141. Normally though the transitive sentence includes an object. This object must always come after the verb, but need not be directly tied to it. Examples: Dzoc in betic in uotoch. "I have finished making my home." Tan u pulic le tunichobo. "He/she/it is throwing those rocks." If the word holac (yesterday) is added to the first sentence, then it can be seen that the object need not be directly tied to the verb: Holac dzoc in betic in uotoch. Dzoc in betic holac in uotoch. Dzoc in betic in uotoch holac.
142. The position which a subject takes on the other hand is very flexible, just as was the case with intransitive verbs. Examples: Le maco tan u pulic le tunichobo. Tan u pulic le maco le tunichobo. Tan u pulic le tunichobo le maco. There are obviously cases where a sentence can become very ambiguous. For example, if both "that man" and "those rocks" are either singular or plural, e.g.: Tan u pulic le tunicho le maco. Tan u pulic le maco le tunicho. Tan u pulicoob le tunichobo le macobo. Tan u pulicoob le macobo le tunichobo. then it would be impossible to know from the sentence itself what is the subject and what is the object. If it is necessary to eliminate ambiguity then the subject is put in front of the verb, since under normal circumstances only the subject can precede the verb and the object never can. Examples: Le maco tan u pulic le tunicho. Le macobo tan u pulicoob le tunichobo.
143. A second and frequently used option which clears up the ambiguity is to place the word tumen (because) before the causer of the action and to transform the verb into a passive verb. In this case the clause tumen (causer) must be the final clause in the sentence. Examples: Tan u pultaal le tunicho tumen le maco. Tan u pultaaloob le tunichobo tumen le macobo. In English we would also use the passive conjugation when forming a sentence in this way. We would say the above pair of phrases as follows: "The stone/stones is/are being thrown by the man/men." More on passive verbs following this discussion on transitive verbs.
144. Compound and complex subject of transitive verbs are also flexible in their positioning in relation to the verb. Examples: Dzoc u betcoob u yotoch Lio yetel Angel. Dzoc u betcoob Lio yetel Angel u yotoch. Lio yetel Angel dzoc u betcoob u yotoch. "Lio and Angel have finished making his/her/its/their house." Dzoc u betic u yotoch le maco, le minaan u ppoc tio. Le maco, le minaan u ppoc tio, dzoc u betic u yotoch. "That man, that without his hat with him, has finished making his/her/its/their house." In these two sets of examples we have another ambiguity, namely to whom the u of u yotoch is referring. The ambiguity can be cleared up either by the context in which the conversation is taking place or that failing by specifying in the sentence for whom the house was built.
Lio yetel Angel dzoc u betcoob u yotoch Mam Goya. Furthermore, when the subject follows the object u yotoch it could be misconstrued that the subject, instead of being the subject of the sentence, is the possessor of the object. If confusion must be avoided then the subject is placed elsewhere, preferably at the beginning of the sentence. In the first set of examples with the compound subject there are three possible positions which the subject can take. In the second set of examples with the complex subject however there are only two positions which the subject can take. Apparently because of the complexity of the subject it is not possible to place it between the verb and the object.
145. As the object becomes more complex or as such things as indirect objects are introduced flexibility in positioning subject and objects becomes much more limited. The subject will usually be positioned at the beginning of the sentence, followed by the verb, then the direct object, and then finally the indirect object. An exception to the order of direct and indirect objects is when the indirect object is a personal pronoun of the type described in Section 34 or a simple indirect object such as a personal name or a simple thing. In this case the order is indirect object - direct object. Examples:
Lio yetel Angel dzoc u betcoob ten in uotoch.
Le x-cħupalo tan u bizic ti u yoch.
Le x-cħupalo tan u bizic Don Lio u yoch.
Le x-cħupalo tan u bizic le kekeno u yoch.
146. If in the third and fourth examples the indirect object is expanded to an indirect object which is preceded by a preposition then the order becomes direct object - indirect object. Example:
Le x-cħupalo tan u bizic u yoch ti le kekeno. Even with a sentence of this level of complexity there remains little flexibility in the positioning of the various components of the sentence. It is possible position the subject behind the verb, but that is the only change which could take place. Tan u bizic le x-cħupalo u yoch ti le kekeno.
147. If we add adverbs there are really only two positions which they can take; either at the beginning or the end of the sentence. Other positions are possible but not probable. First we add zanzamal (daily). Examples: Zanzamal le x-cħupalo tu bizic u yoch ti le kekeno. Zanzamal tu bizic le x-cħupalo u yoch ti le kekeno. Tan u bizic le x-cħupalo u yoch ti le kekeno zanzamal. Note that tan u gets syncopated to tu as noted in Section 37. Now we add hach hadzcabe, very early. Examples: Zanzamal le x-cħupalo tu bizic u yoch ti le kekeno hach hadzcabe. Zanzamal hach hadzcabe le x-cħupalo tu bizic u yoch ti le kekeno. Zanzamal hach hadzcabe tu bizic le x-cħupalo u yoch ti le kekeno. Zanzamal tu bizic le x-cħupalo u yoch ti le kekeno hach hadzcabe. In certain instances, especially when the subject, in this case le x-cħupalo, is to be emphasized, the following word order is possible. Examples: Le x-cħupalo zanzamal tu bizic u yoch ti le kekeno hach hadzcabe. As can be seen from the above examples, sentence structure for those sentences built around transitive verbs is much more rigid than was the case for the sentences built around intransitive verbs. This seems to be because of the existence of both the subject and the object within the sentence of the transitive verb and the resulting confusion which could arise if the structure did not exist.
148. The normal position for the subject of a passive verb is directly following the verb tense. Under normal circumstances the subject would remain in this position. Examples: Hantabi in col. "My garden was eaten." (Was eaten my garden.) Tu chucpachtaal le thulo. "That rabbit is being chased." (Is being chased that rabbit.)
149. Frequently sentences with passive verbs include the causer of the action. As was noted in Section 143 above this is done by adding a clause at the end of the sentence. The first word of this clause is tumen (because) and is followed by the causer; e.g. tumen (causer). Examples:
Hantabi in col tumen le uacaxobo.
Tu chucpachtaal le thulo tumen huntul h-dzone.
150. There are times when the subject of a passive verb does not follow the verb, but these cases happen when the passive verb is part of a subordinate clause. Example: Yan bin huntul chan thule, tu chucpachtaal tumen huntul h-dzone. "There was once it is said a little rabbit, who is being chased by a hunter."
151. Generally though the subject of the passive verb remains directly behind and tied to the verb. If for example the simple adverb holac (yesterday) is added to the first example of a sentence with a passive verb there are two possibilities: Holac hantabi in col. Hantabi in col holac.
152. If the causative clause tumen (causer) is added then the following sentences are possible: Holac hantabi in col tumen le uaxacobo. Hantabi in col holac tumen le uaxacobo. Hantabi in col tumen le uaxacobo holac.
153. If however the simple adverb holac is replaced by an adverbial clause such as dzoc u man kin (some time ago) then such flexibility is no longer possible. The adverbial clause must go in front of the verb tense. Dzoc u man kin hantabi in col. Dzoc u man kin hantabi in col tumen le uaxacobo.
154. No matter how complex the subject of a passive verb is, it remains directly behind the verb. Adding the adjectival clause le yan pach caho (that one which is behind the town) does not change the already limited order in which the sentence can be formed. Hantabi in col, le yan pach caho. Holac hantabi in col, le yan pach caho. Hantabi in col, le yan pach caho, holac. Dzoc u man kin hantabi in col, le yan pach caho. The addition of the causative clause would eliminate the third example just given above as an example of possible word order. Hantabi in col, le yan pach caho, tumen le uaxacobo. Holac hantabi in col, le yan pach caho, tumen le uaxacobo. Dzoc u man kin hantabi in col, le yan pach caho, tumen le uacaxobo.
155. From these examples it can be seen that sentences built around passive verbs are the most structured of the three conjugations. Whether the subject of the verb or the object in the causative clause is simple, compound, or complex, the order remains the same. The only variation, as we have seen, is the positioning of the adverb / adverbial clause, and even here variation is allowed only if the adverb is simple. |
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